The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty

The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty The Chou or Zhou dynasty ruled China from about 1027 to about 221 B.C. It was the longest dynasty in Chinese history and the time when much of ancient Chinese culture developed. The Chou Dynasty followed the second Chinese dynasty, the Shang. Originally pastoralists, the Chou set up a (proto-)feudal social organization based on families with administrative bureaucracy. They also developed a middle class. Although a decentralized tribal system at the beginning, the Zhou became centralized over time. Iron was introduced and Confucianism developed. Also during this long era, Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War, in about 500 B.C. Chinese Philosophers and Religion During the Warring States period within the Chou dynasty, a class of scholars developed, whose members included the great Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Book of Changes was written during the Chou Dynasty. The philosopher Lao Tse was appointed librarian for the historical records of the Chou kings. This period is sometimes referred to as the One Hundred Schools Period. The Chou banned human sacrifice. They saw their success over the Shang as a mandate from heaven. Ancestor worship developed. The Start of the Chou Dynasty Wuwang (Warrior King) was the son of the leader of the Chou (Zhou), who were located on the western border of the Shangs China in what is now Shaanxi province. Wuwang formed a coalition with the leaders of other states to defeat the last, evil ruler of the Shang. They succeeded and Wuwang became the first king of the Chou dynasty (c.1046 to 43 B.C.). Division of the Chou Dynasty Conventionally, the Chou dynasty is divided into the Western or Royal Chou (c.1027 to 771 B.C.) and the Dong or Eastern Chou (c.770 to 221 B.C.) periods. The Dong Zhou itself is subdivided into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (c.770 to 476 B.C.), which was named for a book supposedly by Confucius and when iron weapons and farm implements replaced bronze, and the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (c.475 to 221 B.C.). At the start of the Western Chou, the empire of the Chou extended from Shaanxi to the Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. The first kings of the Chou dynasty gave land to friends and relatives. Like the two previous dynasties, there was a recognized leader who passed power to his descendants. The vassals walled cities, also passed down patriarchally, developed into kingdoms. By the end of the Western Chou, the central government had lost all but nominal power, such as was required for rituals. During the Warring States period, the aristocratic system of warfare changed: peasants fought; there were new weapons, including crossbows, chariots, and iron armor. Developments During the Chou Dynasty During the Chou dynasty in China, ox-drawn plows, iron and iron casting, horseback riding, coinage, multiplication tables, chopsticks, and the crossbow were introduced. Roads, canals, and major irrigation projects were developed. Legalism Legalism developed during the Warring States period. Legalism is a school of philosophy that provided the philosophical background for the first imperial dynasty, the Qin Dynasty. Legalism accepted that humans are flawed and asserted that political institutions should recognize this. Therefore the state should be authoritarian, demanding strict obedience to the leader, and meting out known rewards and punishments. Resources and Further Reading Paul Halsall on the Chinese DynastiesChinese History Zhou DynastyLegalism. (2009). In Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2009, from Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online: search.eb.com/eb/article-9047627

The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty

The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty The Chou or Zhou dynasty ruled China from about 1027 to about 221 B.C. It was the longest dynasty in Chinese history and the time when much of ancient Chinese culture developed. The Chou Dynasty followed the second Chinese dynasty, the Shang. Originally pastoralists, the Chou set up a (proto-)feudal social organization based on families with administrative bureaucracy. They also developed a middle class. Although a decentralized tribal system at the beginning, the Zhou became centralized over time. Iron was introduced and Confucianism developed. Also during this long era, Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War, in about 500 B.C. Chinese Philosophers and Religion During the Warring States period within the Chou dynasty, a class of scholars developed, whose members included the great Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Book of Changes was written during the Chou Dynasty. The philosopher Lao Tse was appointed librarian for the historical records of the Chou kings. This period is sometimes referred to as the One Hundred Schools Period. The Chou banned human sacrifice. They saw their success over the Shang as a mandate from heaven. Ancestor worship developed. The Start of the Chou Dynasty Wuwang (Warrior King) was the son of the leader of the Chou (Zhou), who were located on the western border of the Shangs China in what is now Shaanxi province. Wuwang formed a coalition with the leaders of other states to defeat the last, evil ruler of the Shang. They succeeded and Wuwang became the first king of the Chou dynasty (c.1046 to 43 B.C.). Division of the Chou Dynasty Conventionally, the Chou dynasty is divided into the Western or Royal Chou (c.1027 to 771 B.C.) and the Dong or Eastern Chou (c.770 to 221 B.C.) periods. The Dong Zhou itself is subdivided into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (c.770 to 476 B.C.), which was named for a book supposedly by Confucius and when iron weapons and farm implements replaced bronze, and the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (c.475 to 221 B.C.). At the start of the Western Chou, the empire of the Chou extended from Shaanxi to the Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. The first kings of the Chou dynasty gave land to friends and relatives. Like the two previous dynasties, there was a recognized leader who passed power to his descendants. The vassals walled cities, also passed down patriarchally, developed into kingdoms. By the end of the Western Chou, the central government had lost all but nominal power, such as was required for rituals. During the Warring States period, the aristocratic system of warfare changed: peasants fought; there were new weapons, including crossbows, chariots, and iron armor. Developments During the Chou Dynasty During the Chou dynasty in China, ox-drawn plows, iron and iron casting, horseback riding, coinage, multiplication tables, chopsticks, and the crossbow were introduced. Roads, canals, and major irrigation projects were developed. Legalism Legalism developed during the Warring States period. Legalism is a school of philosophy that provided the philosophical background for the first imperial dynasty, the Qin Dynasty. Legalism accepted that humans are flawed and asserted that political institutions should recognize this. Therefore the state should be authoritarian, demanding strict obedience to the leader, and meting out known rewards and punishments. Resources and Further Reading Paul Halsall on the Chinese DynastiesChinese History Zhou DynastyLegalism. (2009). In Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2009, from Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online: search.eb.com/eb/article-9047627

The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty

The Ancient Chinese Chou Dynasty The Chou or Zhou dynasty ruled China from about 1027 to about 221 B.C. It was the longest dynasty in Chinese history and the time when much of ancient Chinese culture developed. The Chou Dynasty followed the second Chinese dynasty, the Shang. Originally pastoralists, the Chou set up a (proto-)feudal social organization based on families with administrative bureaucracy. They also developed a middle class. Although a decentralized tribal system at the beginning, the Zhou became centralized over time. Iron was introduced and Confucianism developed. Also during this long era, Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War, in about 500 B.C. Chinese Philosophers and Religion During the Warring States period within the Chou dynasty, a class of scholars developed, whose members included the great Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Book of Changes was written during the Chou Dynasty. The philosopher Lao Tse was appointed librarian for the historical records of the Chou kings. This period is sometimes referred to as the One Hundred Schools Period. The Chou banned human sacrifice. They saw their success over the Shang as a mandate from heaven. Ancestor worship developed. The Start of the Chou Dynasty Wuwang (Warrior King) was the son of the leader of the Chou (Zhou), who were located on the western border of the Shangs China in what is now Shaanxi province. Wuwang formed a coalition with the leaders of other states to defeat the last, evil ruler of the Shang. They succeeded and Wuwang became the first king of the Chou dynasty (c.1046 to 43 B.C.). Division of the Chou Dynasty Conventionally, the Chou dynasty is divided into the Western or Royal Chou (c.1027 to 771 B.C.) and the Dong or Eastern Chou (c.770 to 221 B.C.) periods. The Dong Zhou itself is subdivided into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (c.770 to 476 B.C.), which was named for a book supposedly by Confucius and when iron weapons and farm implements replaced bronze, and the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (c.475 to 221 B.C.). At the start of the Western Chou, the empire of the Chou extended from Shaanxi to the Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. The first kings of the Chou dynasty gave land to friends and relatives. Like the two previous dynasties, there was a recognized leader who passed power to his descendants. The vassals walled cities, also passed down patriarchally, developed into kingdoms. By the end of the Western Chou, the central government had lost all but nominal power, such as was required for rituals. During the Warring States period, the aristocratic system of warfare changed: peasants fought; there were new weapons, including crossbows, chariots, and iron armor. Developments During the Chou Dynasty During the Chou dynasty in China, ox-drawn plows, iron and iron casting, horseback riding, coinage, multiplication tables, chopsticks, and the crossbow were introduced. Roads, canals, and major irrigation projects were developed. Legalism Legalism developed during the Warring States period. Legalism is a school of philosophy that provided the philosophical background for the first imperial dynasty, the Qin Dynasty. Legalism accepted that humans are flawed and asserted that political institutions should recognize this. Therefore the state should be authoritarian, demanding strict obedience to the leader, and meting out known rewards and punishments. Resources and Further Reading Paul Halsall on the Chinese DynastiesChinese History Zhou DynastyLegalism. (2009). In Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2009, from Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online: search.eb.com/eb/article-9047627

Obsidian Hydration - An Inexpensive, but Problematic Dating Technique

Obsidian Hydration - An Inexpensive, but Problematic Dating Technique Obsidian hydration dating (or OHD) is a scientific dating technique, which uses the understanding of the geochemical nature of the volcanic glass (a silicate) called obsidian  to provide both relative and absolute dates on artifacts. Obsidian outcrops all over the world, and was preferentially used by stone tool makers because it is very easy to work with, it is very sharp when broken, and it comes in a variety of vivid colors, black, orange, red, green and clear. Fast Facts: Obsidian Hydration Dating Obsidian Hydration Dating (OHD) is a scientific dating technique using the unique geochemical nature of volcanic glasses.  The method relies on the measured and predictable growth of a rind that forms on the glass when first exposed to the atmosphere.  Issues are that rind growth is dependent on three factors: ambient temperature, water vapor pressure, and the chemistry of the volcanic glass itself.  Recent improvements in measurement and analytical advances in water absorption promise to resolve some of the issues.   How and Why Obsidian Hydration Dating Works Obsidian contains water trapped in it during its formation. In its natural state, it has a thick rind  formed by the diffusion of the water into the atmosphere when it first cooled- the technical term is hydrated layer. When a fresh surface of obsidian is exposed to the atmosphere, as when it is broken to make a stone tool, more water is absorbed and the rind begins to grow again.  That new rind is visible and can be measured under high-power magnification (40–80x). Prehistoric rinds can vary from less than 1 micron ( µm) to more than 50  µm, depending on the length of time of exposure.  By measuring the thickness one can easily determine if a particular artifact is older than another (relative age). If the rate at which water diffuses into the glass for that particular chunk of obsidian is known (thats the tricky part), you can use OHD to determine the absolute age of objects. The relationship is disarmingly simple: Age DX2, where Age is in years, D is a constant and X is the hydration rind thickness in microns. Defining the Constant Obsidian, natural volcanic glass exhibiting rind, Montgomery Pass, Mineral County, Nevada. John Cancalosi / Oxford Scientific / Getty Images Its nearly a sure bet that everybody who ever made stone tools and knew about obsidian and where to find it, used it: as a glass, it breaks in predictable ways and creates supremely sharp edges. Making stone tools out of raw obsidian breaks the rind and starts the obsidian clock counting. The measurement of rind growth since the break can be done with a piece of equipment that probably already exists in most laboratories. It does sound perfect doesnt it? The problem is, the constant (that sneaky D up there) has to combine at least three other factors that are known to affect the rate of rind growth: temperature, water vapor pressure, and glass chemistry. The local temperature fluctuates daily, seasonally and over longer time scales in every region on the planet. Archaeologists recognize this and started creating an Effective Hydration Temperature (EHT) model to track and account for the effects of temperature on hydration, as a function of annual mean temperature, annual temperature range and diurnal temperature range. Sometimes scholars add in a depth correction factor to account for the temperature of buried artifacts, assuming the underground conditions are significantly different than surface ones–but the effects havent been researched too much as of yet. Water Vapor and Chemistry The effects of variation in water vapor pressure in the climate where an obsidian artifact has been found have not been studied as intensively as the effects of temperature. In general, water vapor varies with elevation, so you can typically assume that water vapor is constant within a site or region. But OHD is troublesome in regions like the Andes mountains of South America, where people brought their obsidian artifacts across enormous changes in altitudes, from the sea level coastal regions to the 4,000-meter (12,000-foot) high mountains and higher. Even more difficult to account for is differential glass chemistry in obsidians. Some obsidians hydrate faster than others, even within the exact same depositional environment. You can source obsidian (that is, identify the natural outcrop where a piece of obsidian was found), and so you can correct for that variation by measuring the rates in the source and using those to create source-specific hydration curves. But, since the amount of water within obsidian can vary even within obsidian nodules from a single source, that content can significantly affect age estimates. Water Structure Research Methodology to adjust the calibrations for the variability in climate is an emergent technology in the 21st century. New methods critically evaluate the depth profiles of hydrogen on the hydrated surfaces using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) or Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The internal structure of the water content in obsidian has been identified as a highly influential variable which controls the rate of water diffusion at ambient temperature. It has also been found that such structures, like water content, vary within the recognized quarry sources.  Ã‚   Coupled with a more precise measuring methodology, the technique has the potential to increase the reliability of OHD, and provide a window into the evaluation of local climatic conditions, in particular paleo-temperature regimes.   Obsidian History Obsidians measurable rate of rind growth has been recognized since the 1960s. In 1966, geologists Irving Friedman, Robert L. Smith and William D. Long published the first study, the results of experimental hydration of obsidian from the Valles Mountains of New Mexico. Since that time, significant advancement in the recognized impacts of water vapor, temperature and glass chemistry has been undertaken, identifying and accounting for much of the variation, creating higher resolution techniques to measure the rind and define the diffusion profile, and invent and improved new models for EFH and studies on the mechanism of diffusion. Despite its limitations, obsidian hydration dates are far less expensive than radiocarbon, and it is a standard dating practice in many regions of the world today. Sources Liritzis, Ioannis, and Nikolaos Laskaris. Fifty Years of Obsidian Hydration Dating in Archaeology. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357.10 (2011): 2011–23. Print.Nakazawa, Yuichi. The Significance of Obsidian Hydration Dating in Assessing the Integrity of Holocene Midden, Hokkaido, Northern Japan. Quaternary International 397 (2016): 474–83. Print.Nakazawa, Yuichi, et al. A Systematic Comparison of Obsidian Hydration Measurements: The First Application of Micro-Image with Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry to the Prehistoric Obsidian. Quaternary International  (2018). Print.Rogers, Alexander K., and Daron Duke. Unreliability of the Induced Obsidian Hydration Method with Abbreviated Hot-Soak Protocols. Journal of Archaeological Science 52 (2014): 428–35. Print.Rogers, Alexander K., and Christopher M. Stevenson. Protocols for Laboratory Hydration of Obsidian, and Their Effect on Hydration Rate Accuracy: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study. Journal of Archaeological Scie nce: Reports 16 (2017): 117–26. Print. Stevenson, Christopher M., Alexander K. Rogers, and Michael D. Glascock. Variability in Obsidian Structural Water Content and Its Importance in the Hydration Dating of Cultural Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019): 231–42. Print.Tripcevich, Nicholas, Jelmer W. Eerkens, and Tim R. Carpenter. Obsidian Hydration at High Elevation: Archaic Quarrying at the Chivay Source, Southern Peru. Journal of Archaeological Science 39.5 (2012): 1360–67. Print.